Historical Insights
Booming Western New York in the 19th Century
Did you know that Western, NY was once the Silicon Valley of America? The Smith family lived in a lively, rapidly growing, busting town of progressive innovation!
The year 1816 is known as “the year without a summer” because of the severe cold climate abnormalities. The volcanic eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia caused catastrophic consequences across the globe. Vermont alone experienced a decrease in population between 10,000 and 15,000 in the year 1816, erasing seven previous years of population growth. This massive migration to western NY contributed to an increase of religious fever, among other things!
Among the many people moving from Vermont to western NY in the year 1816 were 11 year old Joseph Smith Jr and the Smith family. The population of Palmyra, NY in this year was 2,187. Over the next 10 years thousands more would be moving to the area. The neighboring town of Rochester only had 331 residents in the year 1816, and by the year 1825 (less than 10 years) the population grew to 4,274. This area of the country was growing rapidly!
By mid 1822, Joseph Smith Jr. was now 17 years old, and a substantial portion of the Erie Canal was completed and available for use in Palmyra. This new “information Super Highway” as it is called, open the flood gates to new visitors, commerce, books and newspaper headlines! News traveled fast by word of mouth from new travelers coming and going up and down the Erie Canal. This new climate of change and uncertainty coming to upstate New York, contributed not only to the rapid influx of people, but also to the heightened religious fever, and the establishment of new religious and social movements. The Mormon movement, along with other religions, emerged out of this vibrant climate of change in America.
The Palmyra Harald of June 19, 1822 describes the scene:
“Our village has assumed an appearance which may be justly considered characteristic of the elevated rank to which it is destined. The canal crosses Main St. at the eastern end where there is a large and commodious basin (Jessup) and nearly opposite the center of the village, another basin (Rogers) now nearly completed plus at the west end of the Village is a third basin (Aldrich) directly opposite to which there is an elegant dry dock.” (a basin was similar to a bay which was constructed to allow boats to leave the main channel at the canal for the purposes of loading and unloading). The words “appearance of elevated rank” and “elegant dry dock” are indicators that the canal was a source of pride for the community.
Indian Mounds in North America
What does the Great Serpent Mound in Adams County Ohio have to do with the Mormon Movement in nineteenth century America? Hundreds of such mounds existed in North America when European Settlers arrived.
“The earthworks encountered by the Europeans were a source of great fascination to the new settlers—but only after they convinced themselves that the mounds had to have been built by a superior race, and that couldn't be the Native Americans. Because the new Euroamerican settlers could not, or did not want to, believe that the mounds had been built by the Native American peoples they were displacing as fast as they could, some of them—including the scholarly community—began to formulate a theory of the "lost race of mound builders." The mound builders were said to be a race of superior beings, perhaps one of the Lost Tribes of Israel, or ancestors of Mexicans, who were killed off by later people.
“The English who came to North America convinced themselves first that the people already inhabiting the land they were settling were literally descended from the Canaanites from Israel.”
“By the late 1870s, however, scholarly research led by Cyrus Thomas (1825–1910) of the Smithsonian Institution and Frederick Ward Putnam (1839–1915) of the Peabody Museum reported conclusive evidence that there was no physical difference between the people buried in the mounds and modern Native Americans.”
Tent Revivals in 19th Century
Did you know that in the early 1800’s tent revivals, lasting several days, attracted up to 20,000 or more people at a time? That’s more attendees than a sold out Lakers game at the Staples Center!
In the booming area of western New York, professional clergy was still scarce and many people enjoyed the enthusiasm of folk religion. Traveling Protestant preachers were very successful in winning converts to their sects.
When he began writing his history in 1838, Joseph Smith said “in the process of time my mind became somewhat partial to the Methodist sect, and I felt some desire to be united with them.” Additionally, in 1828, the year following his marriage to Emma Hale, Joseph wanted to join the Methodist Probationary class while they lived in Harmony, Penn. He, along with many others, were drawn to join the Methodist church. The numbers swelled dramatically during the nineteenth century due to the many revivals taking place in western NY.
Two years before Joseph Smith began dictating the Book of Mormon, a revival was held in Palmyra, NY June 1826. Thousands came to the spot and pitched their tents around the raised podium to hear the farewell speech of a beloved, aged Methodist preacher named Bishop McKendree. The Memoirs of Rev. Benjamin Paddock, another clergyman in attendance, gives his report of the events:
“The Genessee Conference for 1826 was held at Palmyra, Wayne, County. “...On another account the session was remarkable. A great camp-meeting was held in connection with it. The ground was only about a mile from the village (of Palmyra) so that members of the conference not immediately and specially employed could take part in its services. At that early day and previously, meetings of the kind were not infrequently held in the neighborhood of our Annual Conferences; but the present one was exceptionally large. There were more than one hundred tents on the ground, and these were occupied by our people from almost all parts of the country, many of them coming from a distance of one hundred miles or more. The spirit of the meeting was admirable. Conversations were numerous and powerful.”
~Bishop William McKendree- Beloved Methodist evangelist gave farewell speech, Palmyra, NY. 1826 at the Gennessee Conference camp meeting.
American Temperance Movement
By the 1820’s whiskey sold for twenty-five cents a gallon, making it cheaper than beer, wine, coffee, tea, or milk. This made whiskey cheap and extremely available, American consumption soared as a result. By 1830, the tolling of a town bell at 11am and again at 4pm marked “grog time.” In 1830, the Smith family lived in Wayne County, NY where alcohol consumption reached its peak at an outlandish 7 gallons of ethanol a year per capita. In the modern world, the current American alcohol consumption rate seems to be roughly 2.42 gallons of ethanol per year, per capita…nearly three times less per capita than in 1830!
This high alcohol consumption led to another movement which emerged during the second great awakening called the Temperance Movement. The Temperance Movement was a social movement that emphasized the abstinence of alcoholic beverages. By 1831, there were over 24 women's organizations which were dedicated to the Temperance Movement. The movement spread rapidly under the influence of churches. By 1833 there were 6,000 local societies in several states. Many churches, including the Latter-day Saints, adopted this health code. The Kirtland Temperance Society, established October 6, 1830, was well established before the saints arrived in Ohio. It comprised of 239 members.
A few years later on February 1, 1833 (weeks before the Word of Wisdom was published) all distilleries in the Kirtland area were shut down. The Word of Wisdom was first published as a stand-alone announcement in December 1833. In 1835, it was included in the newly revised revelations for the church known as The Doctrine and Covenants.
Learn more about the Temperance Movement- a popular social movement of the nineteenth century.
The Magical World View
The magical world view held by the Smith family and some others of their time, interestingly aligns with the Book of Mormon’s narrative. Joseph’s reputation as a seer evolved from seeking hidden treasure in a seer stone into a seer and translator of ancient things. In a BYU article titled “Moroni as Angel and Treasure Guardian” by Mark Ash-hurst McGee he describes the scene of Joseph Smith’s treasure digs by saying “Gathering at the designated spot, the treasure seekers staked out magical circles around the treasure. They used Bible passages and hymns, prayers and, ritual swords and other magical items, or even propitiatory animal sacrifices to appease or fend off pre-ternatural guardians of the treasure. These spirit guardians could be ancient inhabitants, once living, but now charged to keep guardianship over the buried treasure. For one reason or another, the treasure seekers would always return home empty-handed.
Historian D Michael Qinn expounds, The guardian spirit of cumorahs treasure later becomes known, “by the year 1830, by Smith and Latter-day Saint followers as an angel named Moroni who had lived on the American continent anciently as a soldier, prophet, historian, and the one who buried the ancient records...said to be written on gold plates and buried in the Hill Comorah of Palmyra New York. Early Latter-day Saints linked treasure seeking with Smith’s religiously defied visions of September 1823. Early Latter-day Saint leader Brigham Young often refers to the plates as “the treasure.” Many other early latter-day Saints refer to the gold plates as “Comorahs Treasure.” This background information is important when striving to better understand Joseph Smith as a visionary. The magical world view of the day, combined with the fact that nearly all 19 century American conversion narratives mention angelic visitations and claimed visions of Deity are some of the things that set the stage for the angelic influence of the Latter-day Saint movement.
Pictured is an 1832 oil on canvas by John Quidor titled “The Money Diggers” displayed in The Brooklyn Museum.
Smith Family Magical Relics
How did the magical world view of the nineteenth century influence the Mormon movement? The Smith family and others during the early nineteenth century viewed life through what is called the magical world view. The Smith family’s world view included seer stones, treasure digging, guardian spirits over buried treasure, magical parchments, and ceremonial daggers...among other things. While in his teens and 20’s Joseph Smith Jr. developed a reputation in his community as a “seer”...or one hired to look into a seer stone to lead seekers to hidden treasure buried in the earth. This belief in occult magic was seeped into the Smith family’s world view as well as the overall culture of the day. Pictured are two of Joseph Smith’s seer stones, the Smith family parchments, and the family ceremonial dagger owned by Hyrum Smith.
American Restoration Movement (1790-1840)
Learn more about the American Restoration Movement (1790-1840) during the Second Great Awakening!
Pictured are early leaders Thomas Campbell, Barton Stone, Alexander Campbell, and Walter Scott.
Where does the Mormon Movement fit into this space in history?
Universalism
Asael Smith (Joseph Smith’s grandfather) and his sons Jesse and Joseph Smith Sr. found a Universalist society in Tunbridge, Vermont 1797.
In a letter to his family members, Asael Smith writes, “God is just to all and his tender mercies are over all his works…there is no respect of persons with God, who will have all mankind to be saved.”
Universalists believed that all people will receive salvation and a God of love wouldn’t destine anyone (even sinners) to damnation, therefore there is no Devil or hell. These progressive views caused a widespread drifting apart from the settled religious customs and practices in New England. Orthodox disapproval for Universalism became a big concern! Universalist verses non-universalist views became a big controversy of the day, evident in newspapers during the nineteenth century.
In 1818, a man named Millard stated that in Mendon, NY (less than 15 miles from where the Smith family resided in Manchester) that “Universalism is the reigning heresy of the day. It is spreading itself far and wide. It is poisoning more minds, and ruining more souls, than any, if not all heresies among us.” (Trumpet 17, May 1834).
The Book of Mormon also reflects anti universalist sediment. “...and there shall be many which shall say: Eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow we die; and it shall be well with us. ...nevertheless fear God- he will justify committing a little sin...there is no harm in this; and do all these things, for tomorrow we die; and if it so be that we’re guilty, God will beat us with a few stripes, and at last we shall be saved in the kingdom of God. Yea, and there shall be many which shall teach after this manner...” (2 Nephi 28:7-9). The idea that sinners would not be punished for their wrong doings was blasphemy to orthodox religionists.
By the mid 1800’s Universalism was the 5th largest religion in America. The Harvard Divinity School in Cambridge Massachusetts, was founded in 1816 upon Unitarian/Universalist principles. Universalists were often viewed as radicals by traditionalists.
Lucy Mack, Joseph’s mother, recalls her father Solomon Mack as a Universalist during her childhood until he changed views in 1810 at age 78. This could have been a change of heart due to increasing anti-universalist sediment. In Latter-day Saint history, it may be assumed that Joseph Smith Sr. wasn’t interested in religion because he didn’t want to attend a protestant church while living in Palmyra, NY. However, Joseph Smith Sr. had religious beliefs of his own in Universalism. These beliefs served as a backdrop for Joseph Smith Jr. as he would have been well acquainted with the debate between Universalism and orthodoxy through his parents and grandfathers. Joseph Smith Sr’s liberal views in Universalism conflicted with his wife Lucy's religious conservatism.
Alvin, the oldest son in the Smith family, died without having been baptized. Younger brother William Smith recalled in the funeral eulogy given by Rev Benjamin Stockton, that he inferred very strongly Alvin had gone to hell because he was not a church member. Joseph Smith Sr. did not agree with these remarks and refused participation in future services. A couple years after Alvin’s death, Lucy and four children Hyrum, Samuel, and Sophronia joined Reverend Stockton’s Presbyterian congregation.
The Latter-day Saint doctrine that even those who die without being baptized will still have the opportunity to be saved is reflective of Universal salvation, not traditional Christianity. This teaching would have been tremendously meaningful to both Joseph Smith Jr. and his parents after the death of Alvin. The coming forth of The Book of Mormon and the establishment of the church unified the Smith family’s religious beliefs.
Pictured: Top left- anti universalist sketch in a nineteenth century newspaper. Top right- Joseph Smith Sr. Bottom left- Alvin Smith’s headstone, Palmyra. Bottom right- Universalist church dedicated in Rutland, Vermont during the 1800’s
The American Restoration Movement
The word “restoration” is not unique to Latter-day Saints. During the Second Great Awakening (1790-1850). The American Restoration movement (1790-1850), led by Alexander Campbell and Barton Stone, recognized that all the different denominations were dividing Christians. The Restoration movement strove to “restore” the primitive Church of Christ as patterned in the New Testament, and by so doing would hasten the second coming of Jesus Christ.
The idea of restoration to the New Testament church or “primitive church” was familiar and meaningful to seekers of the second great awakening, including Sydney Rigdon and the large number of Campbellite converts he brought to the Mormon movement or “The Church of Christ'' as originally named in 1830.
Joseph Smith, while also striving to restore the primitive church as Alexander Campbell was in Ohio, claimed divine authority straight from the heavens in 1835, rather than just implementing patterns from the New Testament.
Influential churches emerged from the American Restoration movement or Stone Campbell Movement such as The Church of Christ...a name also originally used by the Mormon movement in 1830.
Sidney Rigdon
Why was Sydney Rigdon so valuable to Joseph Smith and Mormonism?
Sydney Rigdon was one of the most influential and skilled religious organizers, ministers, biblical scholars and missionaries in northern Ohio during the 1820s. He was closely connected to Thomas and Alexander Campbell, the founder of The American Restoration Movement.
“As the 1820's ended, Rigdon's territory included seventeen congregations. Disciple records mention seven lieutenants who traveled with Sidney and preached to congregations other than their own: William Collins of the Chardon congregation, Matthew Clapp of Mentor, Symonds Ryder and Zeb Rudolph of Hiram, John Murdock of Orange, Lyman Wight of Kirtland, and Orson Hyde of Florence. After Rigdon's conversion to Mormonism, Murdock, Wight, and Hyde followed him with many from their congregations.”
“Sidney had spent years grooming a number of individuals for the ministry: administrators like Edward Partridge, Newell K. Whitney, Isaac Morley, and Frederick G. Williams; missionaries like Parley P. Pratt, John Murdock, and Orson Hyde; and scholars like Eliza R. Snow and Orson Pratt, all of whom would play significant roles in the fledgling church.”
“Sidney's skill and fame as a religious orator provided ready audiences throughout northern Ohio.” Hundreds of Rigdon’s congregants and those curious in his new religious ideals would end up joining the Mormon Movement in Ohio. Thanks to Rigdon and his associates “The Mormon Movement struck the entire Western Reserve like a roaring storm.”
William Bickerton: Forgotten Latter Day Prophet
In a June 1st 1844 printing in the church’s newspaper, Times and Seasons, is an announcement for Joseph Smith’s candidacy for President of the United States, with Vice President candidate (first counselor in the church) Sydney Rigdon. Within the month, Rigdon would hear of Joseph’s death in Illinois- He was back East campaigning at the time.
When Rigdon made it back to Nauvoo, it was apparent that a succession crisis was at hand! Several different men felt they were the rightful successor to lead the church after the prophet’s death. (There was no organized plan set in place by Joseph prior to his death)
Brigham Young, with the backing of others in the quorum of 12, ended up squeezing Rigdon out of taking lead of the church. (Important to note that among those that followed Brigham Young west were others in leadership also involved in the secret practice of polygamy or “Celestial Marriage.”) Rigdon did not have the benefit or loyalty from those brethren as he was opposed to the practice.
Thousands of Saints, including Joseph’s mother Lucy Mack Smith and brother William Smith, followed James J. Strang north to Beaver Island Michigan. Sydney Rigdon and his followers went back East to Pennsylvania where Rigdon established Church of Christ of the Children of Zion. Another group organized by Lyman Wight left for Texas and others settled in different regions in the Midwest. Joseph Smith III eventually became President of the reorganization of the church (RLDS) -currently known as Community of Christ.
Despite various power struggles between Joseph Smith and Sydney Rigdon, Joseph Smith relied heavily on the expertise of Rigdon as a skilled orator to organize and grow the church. Today, Sydney Rigdon’s church in Pennsylvania has become The Church of Christ (Bickertonite)
Pictured:
- Top left: William Bickerton 1905
-Top right: Times and Seasons printing 1844
-Bottom left: Sydney Rigdon preaching
-Bottom right: The Church of Jesus Christ's historic chapel, Monongahela, Pennsylvania
Alexander Campbell
Alexander Campbell, a religious reformer of the American Restoration movement, observed the modern nature of the Book of Mormon in 1832. Campbell said: “This prophet Smith, through his stone spectacles, wrote on the plates of Nephi, in his Book of Mormon, every error and almost every truth discussed in New York for the last ten years. He [Smith] decides all the great controversies- infant baptism, ordination, the trinity, regeneration, repentance, justification, the fall of man, the atonement, transubstantiation, fasting, penance, church government, religious experience, the call to the ministry, the general resurrection, eternal punishment, who may baptize, and even the question of freemasonry, republican government, and the rights of man. All these topics are repeatedly alluded to in the Book of Mormon.” ~Alexander Campbell, 1832